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Addiction — Addiction is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by craving, abnormal goal-directed behaviours, loss of control including the ability to regularly abstain, relapse, and use despite adverse consequences.[1][2] The human cost is enormous: a 2013 World Health Organization report estimated that drugs accounted for over 12% of deaths worldwide in 2002.[3] The pathologies of addiction are not clear. It is known that the brain circuitry and its neurotransmitters undergo permanent changes. It...
ALS — ALS (Lou Gehrig's Disease) Video describing ALS and the history behind ALS being called Lou Gehrig's disease [3] Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis(ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease which targets upper and lower motor neurons. As the disease progresses there is muscle weakness and atrophy, which result in the loss of bodily functions such as dysarthria, dysphagia, dyspnea. The disease progresses into the lethal stage when the patient can no longer breathe [1]. The most common...
Alzheimer's Disease — Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is characterized as a progressive and irreversible brain disease resulting in the eventual impairment of all cognitive functioning for the affected individual[1]. Despite all current efforts in determining a definite cause for AD, there are three prevailing hypotheses which have been proposed. These involve the oxidative stress, β- amyloid fibril and tau protein hypotheses; all of which are interrelated and are potential mechanisms for the underlying medical condition....
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Bipolar Disorder — Bipolar disorder (BD) is a cyclic affective spectrum disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression, mania or hypomania, and euthymia (normal mood). The DSM-V classifies two types. Type I BD patients experience manic episodes, which involve extreme elevations in mood that can manifest as euphoria, irritability, irrational behavior, and sometimes psychosis. Type II BD patients experience hypomanic episodes, which are less intense elevations of mood resulting in increased energy and...
Borderline Personality Disorder — While Borderline Personality Disorder may present in just 1% of the general population – and 10-25% of patients in the mental health community – the severity of its symptoms is far more concerning than most other disorders. Borderline Personality Disorder is characterized by inescapable feelings of instability in affect regulation, impulsivity, destructive interpersonal relationships and low self-image[1]. The development of this disease largely varies, sometimes caused by environmental factors,...
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Dissociative Identity Disorder — Dissociative Identity Disorder (formerly Multiple Personality Disorder) is characterized by a presence of multiple “selves” within a person that emerge at different times. This leads to memory impairment in that each “self” is not consciously aware of the actions of the other “selves”, with the end result being the individual feeling as if they have lost large chunks of time. Studies have shown that traumatic experiences in early childhood and continued emotional and/or social deprivation...
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Exceptional Memory — Memory is fundamental in shaping our identities, behavior and schemas of the world. The malleability of human memory allows our recollection of past experiences to be flexible yet fragile. In the past decade, there has been an increasing prevalence of individuals possessing the ability to retain and recall vast amounts of information at an exceedingly high rate. This phenomenon is known as Exceptional Memory. Exceptional Memory currently exists within the following modalities: autobiographical,...
Exercise and Neurogenesis — Exercise[3] Regular exercise is integral in promoting neurogenesis, synaptic plasticity, and maintaining regular cognitive performance, allegedly through neuromodulator activity in highly plastic areas of the brain. This is emphasized by findings of increased hippocampal volume after persistent aerobic training in human studies[1]. Many of the neuromodulators involved in promoting synaptic plasticity such as dopamine and estrogen have also been implicated in peripheral physiological...
Schizophrenia — Overview Vital processes that facilitate daily function and social cognition are localized in the brain. Brain chemistry is especially important in maintaining a homeostatic state through the usage of neurotransmitters as chemical messenger molecules in both the central and peripheral nervous system. When these processes are disrupted, widespread abnormalities causing impairment may ensue. Schizophrenia is a chronic and debilitating mental disorder that manifests itself in characteristic ways...
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Forgetting throughout the Ages - From Infancy to Old Age — The phenomenon of forgetting remains relevant from birth to old age. The causes of forgetting may be attributed to chemicals, injury, age-related factors, or abnormal development. In some cases, memory loss is beneficial and is required for normal cognitive function; however, in other instances, it can be damaging and destructive. Forgetting involves interference of explicit memories at any of the three stages of memory: encoding, consolidation, and recall. Explicit memories refer to memories of...
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Dementia — Dementia Common forms of dementia Dementia is a term used to describe a cluster of symptoms; it is not a disease in and of itself which is a common misconception. The symptoms of dementia may include forgetfulness, memory loss, difficulties orienting oneself, impairments in judgment and problem solving, trouble functioning independently in community affairs, and the need for assistance in personal care. Because dementia describes a group of symptoms, it can manifest itself in different...
Meditation — Source : http://ww1.hdnux.com/photos/14/05/14/3167020/3/628x471.jpg Meditation is a practice that involves the self-regulation of the body and mind to achieve mental, physical and spiritual well-being. The main mechanism of meditation is the training of attention and awareness to bring automatic mental and physical processes under voluntary control, thereby inducing a state of calmness, heightened alertness, and blissfulness[1]. Recent research indicates that such experiences produced by...
Multiple Sclerosis — Multiple sclerosis (MS), a chronic autoimmune disease, is a potent case of how detrimental an imbalance in the relationship between the central nervous system and our functioning can be. A mistake in the immune system’s functioning in individuals who develop MS leads to an attack on the central nervous system. The protective fatty material, called myelin, which sheaths the nerve fibers of the all too important brain and spinal cord, are subject to an unrelenting attack by the body’s very own...
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Neuroeconomics — Neuroeconomics is an emerging interdisciplinary study combining the fields of neuroscience, economics, and psychology to establish a common and unified framework for better understanding and describing the processes of decision making, from stimulus detection through to choice, evaluation and learning [1]. Neurobiology serves as a methodological and analytical foundation by which economic models and theories can be empirically validated. Conversely, economics provides neurobiology with testable...
Neuroepigenetics — Neuroepigenetic Mechanisms Neuroepigenetic mechanisms alter gene expression in a highly regulated manner, allowing for neuronal plasticity. Gene regulation plays an integral role in cell survival and function. Cells in the human body use epigenetic markers to regulate gene expression which are later inherited by their daughter cells through cell division; these processes allow for rapid adaptation to changes in the environment. These epigenetic mechanisms involve modifications made to...
Neurogenesis — Process of Neurogenesis The two main neurogenic niches in the brain: subventricular zone (SVZ) and subgranular zone (SGZ)[3] The discovery of neurogenesis in the adult brain has demonstrated that it is actually a dynamic, not static structure[1]. Adult neurogenesis primarily occurs in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the subventricular zone (SVZ)[1]. The process of neurogenesis can be broken down into three steps: cell proliferation, neuronal differentiation, and cell survival[1]....
Neurooncology — Neuro-oncology DTI Diffusion Tensor Imaging of white matter tracts relative to tumor Neuro-oncology is the study of neoplasms associated with the central and peripheral nervous system. While the diseases which fall under the purview of neuro-oncology only account for 2.4% of all cancer deaths, these illnesses are often extremely malignant with only 33.5% of patients diagnosed with a neuro-oncological cancer surviving for 5 years. By mainly restricting our study to one type of brain...
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Pain — Ouch, That Hurts! Pain Pathway A schematic of how pain is processed from the stimulus to the brain. Photo from: http://www.feelingprettyremarkable.com Pain is an unpleasant sensation often indicative of damaging, noxious stimuli that is a part of everyday life. Almost everyone in the world experiences pain in some shape or form in their lifetime. Although it is unpleasant, it is a generally adaptive trait that serves as motivation to avoid dangerous behaviours and to protect the body...
Paranoid Schizophrenia — Schizophrenia is a group of mental disorders with heterogeneous outcomes. The ‘paranoid’ subtype of schizophrenia is now extinct according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM–V due to its recent categorization under the general disorder- Schizophrenia. Many factors have been attributed to the three developmental stages of schizophrenia- prodromal, acute and residual. One theory suggests that an abnormal expression of dopamine in the hypothalamic pathway is the major...
Plasticity and Structural Changes in the Maternal Brain — During pregnancy, a woman’s brain undergoes both structural and hormonal changes in preparation for the task of motherhood. These changes are reflected in the expression of maternal behaviours following the birth of the child. These behaviours are essential to the neurological and psychosocial development of the offspring. Recent studies have indicated changes to the cortical and subcortical regions associated with emotional responsivity.[1] Furthermore, elevated levels of estrogen,...
Prion diseases — Prion diseases are characterised by a pathological conformation of the Prion Protein (PrP). The infectious conformation, called PrPSc (PrP scrapies), is resistant to protease degradation and heat. PrPSc has the unique property of being able to bind to normal PrP and causing it to adopt the pathological conformation in a process known as “templated conversion”. The mutate Prion proteins then acts as a seed from which large protein aggregates are formed. These aggregates are toxic to neurons...
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Sleep — This is a PET scan showing patterns of brain activity during different sleep stages in a healthy brain[3]. The field of sleep research has been a popular and controversial one ever since it began in the early 1900s. The discovery of REM sleep in 1953 was a huge turning point in the field, and directed research to looking at the different phases of sleep and their relation to the body’s circadian rhythm. Currently, we know very little about sleep aside from the fact that it is in some way...
Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 1 — Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by a polyglutamine (CAG) expansion sequence on the Ataxin-1 (ATXN1) gene [1]. The normal allele contains 6-42 CAG repeats while the disease allele contains 39-82 CAG repeats [1]. The mutant morphology is characterized by neuronal loss, in particular, the loss of Purkinje neurons of the cerebellum, thinning of the cerebellum molecular layer and dendritic atrophy [1]. Patients with SCA1 experience...
Synesthesia — Synesthesia Example caption Synesthesia Synesthesia is the phenomenon where stimulation in one sensory modality elicits an associative experience with another sensory modality which is normally unstimulated[1]. This is not limited to basic sensory modalities like gustatory, auditory, visual, olfactory, and touch, but incorporates other aspects of the human experience like language (grapheme-colour and personification based), space-time orientation, emotions, and many others. As such,...
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Tourette's Syndrome — Tourette’s syndrome is a complex, heritable, childhood neuropsychiatric disorder with a gradual decline of symptom severity entering into adulthood and is characterized by the presence of multiple motor and vocal tics. TS has dramatic social impacts on the patient ranging from self-esteem to social acceptance issues. With a prevalence rate of 1% in the general population, more research needs to be conducted in order to find underlying mechanisms at play and to provide better treatment options so...
Treatments for Major Depressive Disorder — Image showing the difference between the brain of a Depressed and Non-depressed individual This image shows that Depression is a biological brain disorder. Image A shows the brain of a depressed individual whereas image B shows a non-depressed individual's brain. Both the brains differ in the level and location of brain activation. Image source: http://tmsofwestchester.com/about-depression/ According to DSM IV-TR, Major Depressive Disorder is defined as a significant decrease in pleasure...